The Edicts of King Asoka
An English rendering by Ven. S. Dhammika
The Wheel Publication No. 386/387
ISBN 955-24-0104-6
Copyright
© 1993 Ven. S. Dhammika
Buddhist Publication Society
P.O. Box 61
54, Sangharaja Mawatha
Kandy, Sri Lanka
Contents
Preface
[^]
This
rendering of King Asoka's Edicts is based heavily on Amulyachandra
Sen's English translation, which includes the original Magadhi
and a Sanskrit and English translation of the text. However,
many parts of the edicts are far from clear in meaning and
the numerous translations of them differ widely. Therefore,
I have also consulted the translations of C. D. Sircar and
D. R. Bhandarkar and in parts favored their interpretations.
Any credit this small book deserves is due entirely to the
labors and learning of these scholars.
Introduction
[^]
Dhamma
sadhu, kiyam cu dhamme ti?
Apasinave, bahu kayane, daya, dane, sace, socaye.
Dhamma is good, but what constitutes Dhamma?
(It includes) little evil, much good, kindness,
generosity, truthfulness and purity.
King Asoka
With
the rediscovery and translation of Indian literature by European
scholars in the 19th century, it was not just the religion and
philosophy of Buddhism that came to light, but also its many
legendary histories and biographies. Amongst this class of literature,
one name that came to be noticed was that of Asoka, a good king
who was supposed to have ruled India in the distant past. Stories
about this king, similar in outline but differing greatly in
details, were found in the Divyavadana, the Asokavadana, the
Mahavamsa and several other works. They told of an exceptionally
cruel and ruthless prince who had many of his brothers killed
in order to seize the throne, who was dramatically converted
to Buddhism and who ruled wisely and justly for the rest of
his life. None of these stories were taken seriously -- after
all many pre-modern cultures had legends about "too good to
be true" kings who had ruled righteously in the past and who,
people hoped, would rule again soon. Most of these legends had
their origins more in popular longing to be rid of the despotic
and uncaring kings than in any historical fact. And the numerous
stories about Asoka were assumed to be the same.
But
in 1837, James Prinsep succeeded in deciphering an ancient inscription
on a large stone pillar in Delhi. Several other pillars and
rocks with similar inscriptions had been known for some time
and had attracted the curiosity of scholars. Prinsep's inscription
proved to be a series of edicts issued by a king calling himself
"Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi." In the following decades,
more and more edicts by this same king were discovered and with
increasingly accurate decipherment of their language, a more
complete picture of this man and his deeds began to emerge.
Gradually, it dawned on scholars that the King Piyadasi of the
edicts might be the King Asoka so often praised in Buddhist
legends. However, it was not until 1915, when another edict
actually mentioning the name Asoka was discovered, that the
identification was confirmed. Having been forgotten for nearly
700 years, one of the greatest men in history became known to
the world once again.
Asoka's
edicts are mainly concerned with the reforms he instituted and
the moral principles he recommended in his attempt to create
a just and humane society. As such, they give us little information
about his life, the details of which have to be culled from
other sources. Although the exact dates of Asoka's life are
a matter of dispute among scholars, he was born in about 304
B.C. and became the third king of the Mauryan dynasty after
the death of his father, Bindusara. His given name was Asoka
but he assumed the title Devanampiya Piyadasi which means "Beloved-of-the-Gods,
He Who Looks On With Affection." There seems to have been a
two-year war of succession during which at least one of Asoka's
brothers was killed. In 262 B.C., eight years after his coronation,
Asoka's armies attacked and conquered Kalinga, a country that
roughly corresponds to the modern state of Orissa. The loss
of life caused by battle, reprisals, deportations and the turmoil
that always exists in the aftermath of war so horrified Asoka
that it brought about a complete change in his personality.
It seems that Asoka had been calling himself a Buddhist for
at least two years prior to the Kalinga war, but his commitment
to Buddhism was only lukewarm and perhaps had a political motive
behind it. But after the war Asoka dedicated the rest of his
life trying to apply Buddhist principles to the administration
of his vast empire. He had a crucial part to play in helping
Buddhism to spread both throughout India and abroad, and probably
built the first major Buddhist monuments. Asoka died in 232
B.C. in the thirty-eighth year of his reign.
Asoka's
edicts are to be found scattered in more than thirty places
throughout India, Nepal, Pakistan and Afghanistan. Most of them
are written in Brahmi script from which all Indian scripts and
many of those used in Southeast Asia later developed. The language
used in the edicts found in the eastern part of the sub-continent
is a type of Magadhi, probably the official language of Asoka's
court. The language used in the edicts found in the western
part of India is closer to Sanskrit although one bilingual edict
in Afghanistan is written in Aramaic and Greek. Asoka's edicts,
which comprise the earliest decipherable corpus of written documents
from India, have survived throughout the centuries because they
are written on rocks and stone pillars. These pillars in particular
are testimony to the technological and artistic genius of ancient
Indian civilization. Originally, there must have been many of
them, although only ten with inscriptions still survive. Averaging
between forty and fifty feet in height, and weighing up to fifty
tons each, all the pillars were quarried at Chunar, just south
of Varanasi and dragged, sometimes hundreds of miles, to where
they were erected. Each pillar was originally capped by a capital,
sometimes a roaring lion, a noble bull or a spirited horse,
and the few capitals that survive are widely recognized as masterpieces
of Indian art. Both the pillars and the capitals exhibit a remarkable
mirror-like polish that has survived despite centuries of exposure
to the elements. The location of the rock edicts is governed
by the availability of suitable rocks, but the edicts on pillars
are all to be found in very specific places. Some, like the
Lumbini pillar, mark the Buddha's birthplace, while its inscriptions
commemorate Asoka's pilgrimage to that place. Others are to
be found in or near important population centers so that their
edicts could be read by as many people as possible.
There
is little doubt that Asoka's edicts were written in his own
words rather than in the stylistic language in which royal edicts
or proclamations in the ancient world were usually written in.
Their distinctly personal tone gives us a unique glimpse into
the personality of this complex and remarkable man. Asoka's
style tends to be somewhat repetitious and plodding as if explaining
something to one who has difficulty in understanding. Asoka
frequently refers to the good works he has done, although not
in a boastful way, but more, it seems, to convince the reader
of his sincerity. In fact, an anxiousness to be thought of as
a sincere person and a good administrator is present in nearly
every edict. Asoka tells his subjects that he looked upon them
as his children, that their welfare is his main concern; he
apologizes for the Kalinga war and reassures the people beyond
the borders of his empire that he has no expansionist intentions
towards them. Mixed with this sincerity, there is a definite
puritanical streak in Asoka's character suggested by his disapproval
of festivals and of religious rituals many of which while being
of little value were nonetheless harmless.
It
is also very clear that Buddhism was the most influential force
in Asoka's life and that he hoped his subjects likewise would
adopt his religion. He went on pilgrimages to Lumbini and Bodh
Gaya, sent teaching monks to various regions in India and beyond
its borders, and he was familiar enough with the sacred texts
to recommend some of them to the monastic community. It is also
very clear that Asoka saw the reforms he instituted as being
a part of his duties as a Buddhist. But, while he was an enthusiastic
Buddhist, he was not partisan towards his own religion or intolerant
of other religions. He seems to have genuinely hoped to be able
to encourage everyone to practice his or her own religion with
the same conviction that he practiced his.
Scholars
have suggested that because the edicts say nothing about the
philosophical aspects of Buddhism, Asoka had a simplistic and
naive understanding of the Dhamma. This view does not take into
account the fact that the purpose of the edicts was not to expound
the truths of Buddhism, but to inform the people of Asoka's
reforms and to encourage them to be more generous, kind and
moral. This being the case, there was no reason for Asoka to
discuss Buddhist philosophy. Asoka emerges from his edicts as
an able administrator, an intelligent human being and as a devoted
Buddhist, and we could expect him to take as keen an interest
in Buddhist philosophy as he did in Buddhist practice.
The
contents of Asoka's edicts make it clear that all the legends
about his wise and humane rule are more than justified and qualify
him to be ranked as one of the greatest rulers. In his edicts,
he spoke of what might be called state morality, and private
or individual morality. The first was what he based his administration
upon and what he hoped would lead to a more just, more spiritually
inclined society, while the second was what he recommended and
encouraged individuals to practice. Both these types of morality
were imbued with the Buddhist values of compassion, moderation,
tolerance and respect for all life. The Asokan state gave up
the predatory foreign policy that had characterized the Mauryan
empire up till then and replaced it with a policy of peaceful
co-existence. The judicial system was reformed in order to make
it more fair, less harsh and less open to abuse, while those
sentenced to death were given a stay of execution to prepare
appeals and regular amnesties were given to prisoners. State
resources were used for useful public works like the importation
and cultivation of medical herbs, the building of rest houses,
the digging of wells at regular intervals along main roads and
the planting of fruit and shade trees. To ensue that these reforms
and projects were carried out, Asoka made himself more accessible
to his subjects by going on frequent inspection tours and he
expected his district officers to follow his example. To the
same end, he gave orders that important state business or petitions
were never to be kept from him no matter what he was doing at
the time. The state had a responsibility not just to protect
and promote the welfare of its people but also its wildlife.
Hunting certain species of wild animals was banned, forest and
wildlife reserves were established and cruelty to domestic and
wild animals was prohibited. The protection of all religions,
their promotion and the fostering of harmony between them, was
also seen as one of the duties of the state. It even seems that
something like a Department of Religious Affairs was established
with officers called Dhamma Mahamatras whose job it was to look
after the affairs of various religious bodies and to encourage
the practice of religion.
The
individual morality that Asoka hoped to foster included respect
(susrusa) towards parents, elders, teachers, friends,
servants, ascetics and brahmans -- behavior that accords with
the advice given to Sigala by the Buddha (Digha Nikaya, Discourse
No. 31). He encouraged generosity (dana) to the poor
(kapana valaka), to ascetics and brahmans, and to friends
and relatives. Not surprisingly, Asoka encouraged harmlessness
towards all life (avihisa bhutanam). In conformity with
the Buddha's advice in the Anguttara Nikaya, II:282, he also
considered moderation in spending and moderation in saving to
be good (apa vyayata apa bhadata). Treating people properly
(samya pratipati), he suggested, was much more important
than performing ceremonies that were supposed to bring good
luck. Because it helped promote tolerance and mutual respect,
Asoka desired that people should be well-learned (bahu sruta)
in the good doctrines (kalanagama) of other people's
religions. The qualities of heart that are recommended by Asoka
in the edicts indicate his deep spirituality. They include kindness
(daya), self-examination (palikhaya), truthfulness
(sace), gratitude (katamnata), purity of heart
(bhava sudhi), enthusiasm (usahena), strong loyalty
(dadha bhatita), self-control (sayame) and love
of the Dhamma (Dhamma kamata).
We
have no way of knowing how effective Asoka's reforms were or
how long they lasted but we do know that monarchs throughout
the ancient Buddhist world were encouraged to look to his style
of government as an ideal to be followed. King Asoka has to
be credited with the first attempt to develop a Buddhist polity.
Today, with widespread disillusionment in prevailing ideologies
and the search for a political philosophy that goes beyond greed
(capitalism), hatred (communism) and delusion (dictatorships
led by "infallible" leaders), Asoka's edicts may make a meaningful
contribution to the development of a more spiritually based
political system.
The
Fourteen Rock Edicts [^]
1
Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, has caused this Dhamma edict
to be written.[1] Here (in my domain)
no living beings are to be slaughtered or offered in sacrifice.
Nor should festivals be held, for Beloved-of-the-Gods, King
Piyadasi, sees much to object to in such festivals, although
there are some festivals that Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi,
does approve of.
Formerly, in the kitchen of Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi,
hundreds of thousands of animals were killed every day to make
curry. But now with the writing of this Dhamma edict only three
creatures, two peacocks and a deer are killed, and the deer
not always. And in time, not even these three creatures will
be killed.
2
Everywhere[2] within Beloved-of-the-Gods,
King Piyadasi's domain, and among the people beyond the borders,
the Cholas, the Pandyas, the Satiyaputras, the Keralaputras,
as far as Tamraparni and where the Greek king Antiochos rules,
and among the kings who are neighbors of Antiochos,[3]
everywhere has Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, made provision
for two types of medical treatment: medical treatment for humans
and medical treatment for animals. Wherever medical herbs suitable
for humans or animals are not available, I have had them imported
and grown. Wherever medical roots or fruits are not available
I have had them imported and grown. Along roads I have had wells
dug and trees planted for the benefit of humans and animals.[4]
3
Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, speaks thus:[5]
Twelve years after my coronation this has been ordered -- Everywhere
in my domain the Yuktas, the Rajjukas and the Pradesikas shall
go on inspection tours every five years for the purpose of Dhamma
instruction and also to conduct other business.[6]
Respect for mother and father is good, generosity to friends,
acquaintances, relatives, Brahmans and ascetics is good, not
killing living beings is good, moderation in spending and moderation
in saving is good. The Council shall notify the Yuktas about
the observance of these instructions in these very words.
4
In the past, for many hundreds of years, killing or harming
living beings and improper behavior towards relatives, and improper
behavior towards Brahmans and ascetics has increased.[7]
But now due to Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi's Dhamma practice,
the sound of the drum has been replaced by the sound of the
Dhamma.[8] The sighting of heavenly
cars, auspicious elephants, bodies of fire and other divine
sightings has not happened for many hundreds of years. But now
because Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi promotes restraint
in the killing and harming of living beings, proper behavior
towards relatives, Brahmans and ascetics, and respect for mother,
father and elders, such sightings have increased.[9]
These
and many other kinds of Dhamma practice have been encouraged
by Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, and he will continue
to promote Dhamma practice. And the sons, grandsons and great-grandsons
of Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, too will continue to
promote Dhamma practice until the end of time; living by Dhamma
and virtue, they will instruct in Dhamma. Truly, this is the
highest work, to instruct in Dhamma. But practicing the Dhamma
cannot be done by one who is devoid of virtue and therefore
its promotion and growth is commendable.
This
edict has been written so that it may please my successors to
devote themselves to promoting these things and not allow them
to decline. Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, has had this
written twelve years after his coronation.
5
Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, speaks thus:[10]
To do good is difficult. One who does good first does something
hard to do. I have done many good deeds, and, if my sons, grandsons
and their descendants up to the end of the world act in like
manner, they too will do much good. But whoever amongst them
neglects this, they will do evil. Truly, it is easy to do evil.[11]
In
the past there were no Dhamma Mahamatras but such officers were
appointed by me thirteen years after my coronation. Now they
work among all religions for the establishment of Dhamma, for
the promotion of Dhamma, and for the welfare and happiness of
all who are devoted to Dhamma. They work among the Greeks, the
Kambojas, the Gandharas, the Rastrikas, the Pitinikas and other
peoples on the western borders.[12]
They work among soldiers, chiefs, Brahmans, householders, the
poor, the aged and those devoted to Dhamma -- for their welfare
and happiness -- so that they may be free from harassment. They
(Dhamma Mahamatras) work for the proper treatment of prisoners,
towards their unfettering, and if the Mahamatras think, "This
one has a family to support," "That one has been bewitched,"
"This one is old," then they work for the release of such prisoners.
They work here, in outlying towns, in the women's quarters belonging
to my brothers and sisters, and among my other relatives. They
are occupied everywhere. These Dhamma Mahamatras are occupied
in my domain among people devoted to Dhamma to determine who
is devoted to Dhamma, who is established in Dhamma, and who
is generous.
This
Dhamma edict has been written on stone so that it might endure
long and that my descendants might act in conformity with it.
6
Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, speaks thus:[13]
In the past, state business was not transacted nor were reports
delivered to the king at all hours. But now I have given this
order, that at any time, whether I am eating, in the women's
quarters, the bed chamber, the chariot, the palanquin, in the
park or wherever, reporters are to be posted with instructions
to report to me the affairs of the people so that I might attend
to these affairs wherever I am. And whatever I orally order
in connection with donations or proclamations, or when urgent
business presses itself on the Mahamatras, if disagreement or
debate arises in the Council, then it must be reported to me
immediately. This is what I have ordered. I am never content
with exerting myself or with despatching business. Truly, I
consider the welfare of all to be my duty, and the root of this
is exertion and the prompt despatch of business. There is no
better work than promoting the welfare of all the people and
whatever efforts I am making is to repay the debt I owe to all
beings to assure their happiness in this life, and attain heaven
in the next.
Therefore
this Dhamma edict has been written to last long and that my
sons, grandsons and great-grandsons might act in conformity
with it for the welfare of the world. However, this is difficult
to do without great exertion.
7
Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, desires that all religions
should reside everywhere, for all of them desire self-control
and purity of heart.[14] But people
have various desires and various passions, and they may practice
all of what they should or only a part of it. But one who receives
great gifts yet is lacking in self-control, purity of heart,
gratitude and firm devotion, such a person is mean.
8
In the past kings used to go out on pleasure tours during which
there was hunting and other entertainment.[15]
But ten years after Beloved-of-the-Gods had been coronated,
he went on a tour to Sambodhi and thus instituted Dhamma tours.[16]
During these tours, the following things took place: visits
and gifts to Brahmans and ascetics, visits and gifts of gold
to the aged, visits to people in the countryside, instructing
them in Dhamma, and discussing Dhamma with them as is suitable.
It is this that delights Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi,
and is, as it were, another type of revenue.
9
Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, speaks thus:[17]
In times of sickness, for the marriage of sons and daughters,
at the birth of children, before embarking on a journey, on
these and other occasions, people perform various ceremonies.
Women in particular perform many vulgar and worthless ceremonies.
These types of ceremonies can be performed by all means, but
they bear little fruit. What does bear great fruit, however,
is the ceremony of the Dhamma. This involves proper behavior
towards servants and employees, respect for teachers, restraint
towards living beings, and generosity towards ascetics and Brahmans.
These and other things constitute the ceremony of the Dhamma.
Therefore a father, a son, a brother, a master, a friend, a
companion, and even a neighbor should say: "This is good, this
is the ceremony that should be performed until its purpose is
fulfilled, this I shall do."[18]
Other ceremonies are of doubtful fruit, for they may achieve
their purpose, or they may not, and even if they do, it is only
in this world. But the ceremony of the Dhamma is timeless. Even
if it does not achieve its purpose in this world, it produces
great merit in the next, whereas if it does achieve its purpose
in this world, one gets great merit both here and there through
the ceremony of the Dhamma.
10
Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, does not consider glory
and fame to be of great account unless they are achieved through
having my subjects respect Dhamma and practice Dhamma, both
now and in the future.[19] For
this alone does Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, desire glory
and fame. And whatever efforts Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi,
is making, all of that is only for the welfare of the people
in the next world, and that they will have little evil. And
being without merit is evil. This is difficult for either a
humble person or a great person to do except with great effort,
and by giving up other interests. In fact, it may be even more
difficult for a great person to do.
11
Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, speaks thus:[20]
There is no gift like the gift of the Dhamma,[21]
(no acquaintance like) acquaintance with Dhamma, (no distribution
like) distribution of Dhamma, and (no kinship like) kinship
through Dhamma. And it consists of this: proper behavior towards
servants and employees, respect for mother and father, generosity
to friends, companions, relations, Brahmans and ascetics, and
not killing living beings. Therefore a father, a son, a brother,
a master, a friend, a companion or a neighbor should say: "This
is good, this should be done." One benefits in this world and
gains great merit in the next by giving the gift of the Dhamma.
12
Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, honors both ascetics and
the householders of all religions, and he honors them with gifts
and honors of various kinds.[22]
But Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, does not value gifts
and honors as much as he values this -- that there should be
growth in the essentials of all religions.[23]
Growth in essentials can be done in different ways, but all
of them have as their root restraint in speech, that is, not
praising one's own religion, or condemning the religion of others
without good cause. And if there is cause for criticism, it
should be done in a mild way. But it is better to honor other
religions for this reason. By so doing, one's own religion benefits,
and so do other religions, while doing otherwise harms one's
own religion and the religions of others. Whoever praises his
own religion, due to excessive devotion, and condemns others
with the thought "Let me glorify my own religion," only harms
his own religion. Therefore contact (between religions) is good.[24]
One should listen to and respect the doctrines professed by
others. Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, desires that all
should be well-learned in the good doctrines of other religions.
Those
who are content with their own religion should be told this:
Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, does not value gifts and
honors as much as he values that there should be growth in the
essentials of all religions. And to this end many are working
-- Dhamma Mahamatras, Mahamatras in charge of the women's quarters,
officers in charge of outlying areas, and other such officers.
And the fruit of this is that one's own religion grows and the
Dhamma is illuminated also.
13
Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, conquered the Kalingas eight
years after his coronation.[25]
One hundred and fifty thousand were deported, one hundred thousand
were killed and many more died (from other causes). After the
Kalingas had been conquered, Beloved-of-the-Gods came to feel
a strong inclination towards the Dhamma, a love for the Dhamma
and for instruction in Dhamma. Now Beloved-of-the-Gods feels
deep remorse for having conquered the Kalingas.
Indeed,
Beloved-of-the-Gods is deeply pained by the killing, dying and
deportation that take place when an unconquered country is conquered.
But Beloved-of-the-Gods is pained even more by this -- that
Brahmans, ascetics, and householders of different religions
who live in those countries, and who are respectful to superiors,
to mother and father, to elders, and who behave properly and
have strong loyalty towards friends, acquaintances, companions,
relatives, servants and employees -- that they are injured,
killed or separated from their loved ones. Even those who are
not affected (by all this) suffer when they see friends, acquaintances,
companions and relatives affected. These misfortunes befall
all (as a result of war), and this pains Beloved-of-the-Gods.
There
is no country, except among the Greeks, where these two groups,
Brahmans and ascetics, are not found, and there is no country
where people are not devoted to one or another religion.[26]
Therefore the killing, death or deportation of a hundredth,
or even a thousandth part of those who died during the conquest
of Kalinga now pains Beloved-of-the-Gods. Now Beloved-of-the-Gods
thinks that even those who do wrong should be forgiven where
forgiveness is possible.
Even
the forest people, who live in Beloved-of-the-Gods' domain,
are entreated and reasoned with to act properly. They are told
that despite his remorse Beloved-of-the-Gods has the power to
punish them if necessary, so that they should be ashamed of
their wrong and not be killed. Truly, Beloved-of-the-Gods desires
non-injury, restraint and impartiality to all beings, even where
wrong has been done.
Now
it is conquest by Dhamma that Beloved-of-the-Gods considers
to be the best conquest.[27] And
it (conquest by Dhamma) has been won here, on the borders, even
six hundred yojanas away, where the Greek king Antiochos rules,
beyond there where the four kings named Ptolemy, Antigonos,
Magas and Alexander rule, likewise in the south among the Cholas,
the Pandyas, and as far as Tamraparni.[28]
Here in the king's domain among the Greeks, the Kambojas, the
Nabhakas, the Nabhapamkits, the Bhojas, the Pitinikas, the Andhras
and the Palidas, everywhere people are following Beloved-of-the-Gods'
instructions in Dhamma. Even where Beloved-of-the-Gods' envoys
have not been, these people too, having heard of the practice
of Dhamma and the ordinances and instructions in Dhamma given
by Beloved-of-the-Gods, are following it and will continue to
do so. This conquest has been won everywhere, and it gives great
joy -- the joy which only conquest by Dhamma can give. But even
this joy is of little consequence. Beloved-of-the-Gods considers
the great fruit to be experienced in the next world to be more
important.
I
have had this Dhamma edict written so that my sons and great-grandsons
may not consider making new conquests, or that if military conquests
are made, that they be done with forbearance and light punishment,
or better still, that they consider making conquest by Dhamma
only, for that bears fruit in this world and the next. May all
their intense devotion be given to this which has a result in
this world and the next.
14
Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, has had these Dhamma edicts
written in brief, in medium length, and in extended form.[29]
Not all of them occur everywhere, for my domain is vast, but
much has been written, and I will have still more written. And
also there are some subjects here that have been spoken of again
and again because of their sweetness, and so that the people
may act in accordance with them. If some things written are
incomplete, this is because of the locality, or in consideration
of the object, or due to the fault of the scribe.
The
Kalinga Rock Edicts [^]
1
Beloved-of-the-Gods says that the Mahamatras of Tosali who are
judicial officers in the city are to be told this:[30]
I wish to see that everything I consider to be proper is carried
out in the right way. And I consider instructing you to be the
best way of accomplishing this. I have placed you over many
thousands of people that you may win the people's affection.
All
men are my children. What I desire for my own children, and
I desire their welfare and happiness both in this world and
the next, that I desire for all men. You do not understand to
what extent I desire this, and if some of you do understand,
you do not understand the full extent of my desire.
You
must attend to this matter. While being completely law-abiding,
some people are imprisoned, treated harshly and even killed
without cause so that many people suffer. Therefore your aim
should be to act with impartiality. It is because of these things
-- envy, anger, cruelty, hate, indifference, laziness or tiredness
-- that such a thing does not happen. Therefore your aim should
be: "May these things not be in me." And the root of this is
non-anger and patience. Those who are bored with the administration
of justice will not be promoted; (those who are not) will move
upwards and be promoted. Whoever among you understands this
should say to his colleagues: "See that you do your duty properly.
Such and such are Beloved-of-the-Gods' instructions." Great
fruit will result from doing your duty, while failing in it
will result in gaining neither heaven nor the king's pleasure.
Failure in duty on your part will not please me. But done properly,
it will win you heaven and you will be discharging your debts
to me.
This
edict is to be listened to on Tisa day, between Tisa days, and
on other suitable occasions, it should be listened to even by
a single person. Acting thus, you will be doing your duty.
This
edict has been written for the following purpose: that the judicial
officers of the city may strive to do their duty and that the
people under them might not suffer unjust imprisonment or harsh
treatment. To achieve this, I will send out Mahamatras every
five years who are not harsh or cruel, but who are merciful
and who can ascertain if the judicial officers have understood
my purpose and are acting according to my instructions. Similarly,
from Ujjayini, the prince will send similar persons with the
same purpose without allowing three years to elapse. Likewise
from Takhasila also. When these Mahamatras go on tours of inspection
each year, then without neglecting their normal duties, they
will ascertain if judicial officers are acting according to
the king's instructions.
2
Beloved-of-the-Gods speaks thus:[31]
This royal order is to be addressed to the Mahamatras at Samapa.
I wish to see that everything I consider to be proper is carried
out in the right way. And I consider instructing you to be the
best way of accomplishing this. All men are my children. What
I desire for my own children, and I desire their welfare and
happiness both in this world and the next, that I desire for
all men.[32]
The
people of the unconquered territories beyond the borders might
think: "What is the king's intentions towards us?" My only intention
is that they live without fear of me, that they may trust me
and that I may give them happiness, not sorrow. Furthermore,
they should understand that the king will forgive those who
can be forgiven, and that he wishes to encourage them to practice
Dhamma so that they may attain happiness in this world and the
next. I am telling you this so that I may discharge the debts
I owe, and that in instructing you, that you may know that my
vow and my promise will not be broken. Therefore acting in this
way, you should perform your duties and assure them (the people
beyond the borders) that: "The king is like a father. He feels
towards us as he feels towards himself. We are to him like his
own children."
By
instructing you and informing you of my vow and my promise I
shall be applying myself in complete fullness to achieving this
object. You are able indeed to inspire them with confidence
and to secure their welfare and happiness in this world and
the next, and by acting thus, you will attain heaven as well
as discharge the debts you owe to me. And so that the Mahamatras
can devote themselves at all times to inspiring the border areas
with confidence and encouraging them to practice Dhamma, this
edict has been written here.
This
edict is to be listened to every four months on Tisa day, between
Tisa days, and on other suitable occasions, it should be listened
to even by a single person. Acting thus, you will be doing your
duty.
Minor
Rock Edicts [^]
1
Beloved-of-the-Gods speaks thus:[33]
It is now more than two and a half years since I became a lay-disciple,
but until now I have not been very zealous.[34]
But now that I have visited the Sangha for more than a year,
I have become very zealous. Now the people in India who have
not associated with the gods do so. This is the result of zeal
and it is not just the great who can do this. Even the humble,
if they are zealous, can attain heaven. And this proclamation
has been made with this aim. Let both humble and great be zealous,
let even those on the borders know and let zeal last long. Then
this zeal will increase, it will greatly increase, it will increase
up to one-and-a-half times. This message has been proclaimed
two hundred and fifty-six times by the king while on tour.
2
Beloved-of-the-Gods speaks thus:[35]
Father and mother should be respected and so should elders,
kindness to living beings should be made strong and the truth
should be spoken. In these ways, the Dhamma should be promoted.
Likewise, a teacher should be honored by his pupil and proper
manners should be shown towards relations. This is an ancient
rule that conduces to long life. Thus should one act. Written
by the scribe Chapala.
3
Piyadasi, King of Magadha, saluting the Sangha and wishing them
good health and happiness, speaks thus:[36]
You know, reverend sirs, how great my faith in the Buddha, the
Dhamma and Sangha is. Whatever, reverend sirs, has been spoken
by Lord Buddha, all that is well-spoken.[37]
I consider it proper, reverend sirs, to advise on how the good
Dhamma should last long.
These Dhamma texts -- Extracts from the Discipline, the Noble
Way of Life, the Fears to Come, the Poem on the Silent Sage,
the Discourse on the Pure Life, Upatisa's Questions, and the
Advice to Rahula which was spoken by the Buddha concerning false
speech -- these Dhamma texts, reverend sirs, I desire that all
the monks and nuns may constantly listen to and remember.[38]
Likewise the laymen and laywomen. I have had this written that
you may know my intentions.
The
Seven Pillar Edicts [^]
1
Beloved-of-the-Gods speaks thus:[39]
This Dhamma edict was written twenty-six years after my coronation.
Happiness in this world and the next is difficult to obtain
without much love for the Dhamma, much self-examination, much
respect, much fear (of evil), and much enthusiasm. But through
my instruction this regard for Dhamma and love of Dhamma has
grown day by day, and will continue to grow. And my officers
of high, low and middle rank are practicing and conforming to
Dhamma, and are capable of inspiring others to do the same.
Mahamatras in border areas are doing the same. And these are
my instructions: to protect with Dhamma, to make happiness through
Dhamma and to guard with Dhamma.
2
Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, speaks thus: Dhamma is good,
but what constitutes Dhamma? (It includes) little evil, much
good, kindness, generosity, truthfulness and purity. I have
given the gift of sight in various ways.[40]
To two-footed and four-footed beings, to birds and aquatic animals,
I have given various things including the gift of life. And
many other good deeds have been done by me.
This
Dhamma edict has been written that people might follow it and
it might endure for a long time. And the one who follows it
properly will do something good.
3
Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, speaks thus: People see
only their good deeds saying, "I have done this good deed."
But they do not see their evil deeds saying, "I have done this
evil deed" or "This is called evil." But this (tendency) is
difficult to see.[41] One should
think like this: "It is these things that lead to evil, to violence,
to cruelty, anger, pride and jealousy. Let me not ruin myself
with these things." And further, one should think: "This leads
to happiness in this world and the next."
4
Beloved-of-the-Gods speaks thus: This Dhamma edict was written
twenty-six years after my coronation. My Rajjukas are working
among the people, among many hundreds of thousands of people.
The hearing of petitions and the administration of justice has
been left to them so that they can do their duties confidently
and fearlessly and so that they can work for the welfare, happiness
and benefit of the people in the country. But they should remember
what causes happiness and sorrow, and being themselves devoted
to Dhamma, they should encourage the people in the country (to
do the same), that they may attain happiness in this world and
the next. These Rajjukas are eager to serve me. They also obey
other officers who know my desires, who instruct the Rajjukas
so that they can please me. Just as a person feels confident
having entrusted his child to an expert nurse thinking: "The
nurse will keep my child well," even so, the Rajjukas have been
appointed by me for the welfare and happiness of the people
in the country.
The
hearing of petitions and the administration of justice have
been left to the Rajjukas so that they can do their duties unperturbed,
fearlessly and confidently. It is my desire that there should
be uniformity in law and uniformity in sentencing. I even go
this far, to grant a three-day stay for those in prison who
have been tried and sentenced to death. During this time their
relatives can make appeals to have the prisoners' lives spared.
If there is none to appeal on their behalf, the prisoners can
give gifts in order to make merit for the next world, or observe
fasts. Indeed, it is my wish that in this way, even if a prisoner's
time is limited, he can prepare for the next world, and that
people's Dhamma practice, self-control and generosity may grow.
5
Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, speaks thus: Twenty-six
years after my coronation various animals were declared to be
protected -- parrots, mainas, aruna, ruddy geese, wild
ducks, nandimukhas, gelatas, bats, queen ants, terrapins,
boneless fish, vedareyaka, gangapuputaka, sankiya
fish, tortoises, porcupines, squirrels, deer, bulls, okapinda,
wild asses, wild pigeons, domestic pigeons and all four-footed
creatures that are neither useful nor edible.[42]
Those nanny goats, ewes and sows which are with young or giving
milk to their young are protected, and so are young ones less
than six months old. Cocks are not to be caponized, husks hiding
living beings are not to be burnt and forests are not to be
burnt either without reason or to kill creatures. One animal
is not to be fed to another. On the three Caturmasis, the three
days of Tisa and during the fourteenth and fifteenth of the
Uposatha, fish are protected and not to be sold. During these
days animals are not to be killed in the elephant reserves or
the fish reserves either. On the eighth of every fortnight,
on the fourteenth and fifteenth, on Tisa, Punarvasu, the three
Caturmasis and other auspicious days, bulls are not to be castrated,
billy goats, rams, boars and other animals that are usually
castrated are not to be. On Tisa, Punarvasu, Caturmasis and
the fortnight of Caturmasis, horses and bullocks are not be
branded.
In
the twenty-six years since my coronation prisoners have been
given amnesty on twenty-five occasions.
6
Beloved-of-the-Gods speaks thus: Twelve years after my coronation
I started to have Dhamma edicts written for the welfare and
happiness of the people, and so that not transgressing them
they might grow in the Dhamma. Thinking: "How can the welfare
and happiness of the people be secured?" I give attention to
my relatives, to those dwelling near and those dwelling far,
so I can lead them to happiness and then I act accordingly.
I do the same for all groups. I have honored all religions with
various honors. But I consider it best to meet with people personally.
This
Dhamma edict was written twenty-six years after my coronation.
7
Beloved-of-the-Gods speaks thus: In the past kings desired that
the people might grow through the promotion of the Dhamma. But
despite this, people did not grow through the promotion of the
Dhamma. Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, said concerning
this: "It occurs to me that in the past kings desired that the
people might grow through the promotion of the Dhamma. But despite
this, people did not grow through the promotion of the Dhamma.
Now how can the people be encouraged to follow it? How can the
people be encouraged to grow through the promotion of the Dhamma?
How can I elevate them by promoting the Dhamma?" Beloved-of-the-Gods,
King Piyadasi, further said concerning this: "It occurs to me
that I shall have proclamations on Dhamma announced and instruction
on Dhamma given. When people hear these, they will follow them,
elevate themselves and grow considerably through the promotion
of the Dhamma." It is for this purpose that proclamations on
Dhamma have been announced and various instructions on Dhamma
have been given and that officers who work among many promote
and explain them in detail. The Rajjukas who work among hundreds
of thousands of people have likewise been ordered: "In this
way and that encourage those who are devoted to Dhamma." Beloved-of-the-Gods
speaks thus: "Having this object in view, I have set up Dhamma
pillars, appointed Dhamma Mahamatras, and announced Dhamma proclamations."
Beloved-of-the-Gods,
King Piyadasi, says: Along roads I have had banyan trees planted
so that they can give shade to animals and men, and I have had
mango groves planted. At intervals of eight krosas, I
have had wells dug, rest-houses built, and in various places,
I have had watering-places made for the use of animals and men.
But these are but minor achievements. Such things to make the
people happy have been done by former kings. I have done these
things for this purpose, that the people might practice the
Dhamma.
Beloved-of-the-Gods,
King Piyadasi, speaks thus: My Dhamma Mahamatras too are occupied
with various good works among the ascetics and householders
of all religions. I have ordered that they should be occupied
with the affairs of the Sangha. I have also ordered that they
should be occupied with the affairs of the Brahmans and the
Ajivikas. I have ordered that they be occupied with the Niganthas.[43]
In fact, I have ordered that different Mahamatras be occupied
with the particular affairs of all different religions. And
my Dhamma Mahamatras likewise are occupied with these and other
religions.
Beloved-of-the-Gods,
King Piyadasi, speaks thus: These and other principal officers
are occupied with the distribution of gifts, mine as well as
those of the queens. In my women's quarters, they organize various
charitable activities here and in the provinces. I have also
ordered my sons and the sons of other queens to distribute gifts
so that noble deeds of Dhamma and the practice of Dhamma may
be promoted. And noble deeds of Dhamma and the practice of Dhamma
consist of having kindness, generosity, truthfulness, purity,
gentleness and goodness increase among the people.
Beloved-of-the-Gods,
King Piyadasi, speaks thus: Whatever good deeds have been done
by me, those the people accept and those they follow. Therefore
they have progressed and will continue to progress by being
respectful to mother and father, respectful to elders, by courtesy
to the aged and proper behavior towards Brahmans and ascetics,
towards the poor and distressed, and even towards servants and
employees.
Beloved-of-the-Gods,
King Piyadasi, speaks thus: This progress among the people through
Dhamma has been done by two means, by Dhamma regulations and
by persuasion. Of these, Dhamma regulation is of little effect,
while persuasion has much more effect. The Dhamma regulations
I have given are that various animals must be protected. And
I have given many other Dhamma regulations also. But it is by
persuasion that progress among the people through Dhamma has
had a greater effect in respect of harmlessness to living beings
and non-killing of living beings.
Concerning
this, Beloved-of-the-Gods says: Wherever there are stone pillars
or stone slabs, there this Dhamma edict is to be engraved so
that it may long endure. It has been engraved so that it may
endure as long as my sons and great-grandsons live and as long
as the sun and the moon shine, and so that people may practice
it as instructed. For by practicing it happiness will be attained
in this world and the next.
This
Dhamma edict has been written by me twenty-seven years after
my coronation.
The
Minor Pillar Edicts [^]
1
Twenty years after his coronation, Beloved-of-the-Gods, King
Piyadasi, visited this place and worshipped because here the
Buddha, the sage of the Sakyans, was born.[44]
He had a stone figure and a pillar set up and because the Lord
was born here, the village of Lumbini was exempted from tax
and required to pay only one eighth of the produce.
2
Beloved-of-the-Gods commands:[45]
The Mahamatras at Kosambi (are to be told: Whoever splits the
Sangha) which is now united, is not to be admitted into the
Sangha. Whoever, whether monk or nun, splits the Sangha is to
be made to wear white clothes and to reside somewhere other
than in a monastery.[46]
1.
Girnar version issued in 257 B.C. These fourteen edicts, with
minor differences, are found in five different places throughout
India. In two other places, they are found minus numbers 11,
12 and 13.
[Go back]
2.
Girnar version, issued in 257 B.C.
[Go back]
3.
The Cholas and Pandyas were south Indian peoples living outside
Asoka's empire. The Satiyaputras and Keralaputras lived on the
southwest seaboard of India. Tamraparni is one of the ancient
names for Sri Lanka. On Antiochos see Note 28.
[Go back]
4.
By so doing, Asoka was following the advice given by the Buddha
at Samyutta Nikaya, I:33.
[Go back]
5.
Girnar version, issued in 257 B.C.
[Go back]
6.
The exact duties of these royal officers are not known.
[Go back]
7.
Girnar version, issued in 257 B.C.
[Go back]
8.
This probably refers to the drum that was beaten to announce
the punishment of lawbreakers. See Samyutta Nikaya, IV:244.
[Go back]
9.
Like many people in the ancient world, Asoka believed that when
a just king ruled, there would be many auspicious portents.
[Go back]
10.
Kalsi version, issued in 256 B.C.
[Go back]
11.
This seems to be a paraphrase of Dhammapada 163.
[Go back]
12.
The Greeks (Yona) settled in large numbers in what is now Afghanistan
and Pakistan after the conquests of Alexander the Great, although
small communities lived there prior to this.
[Go back]
13.
Girnar version, issued in 256 B.C..
[Go back]
14.
Girnar version, issued in 256 B.C.
[Go back]
15.
Girnar version, issued in 256 B.C.
[Go back]
16.
Bodh Gaya, the site of the Buddha's enlightenment, was known
in ancient times as either Sambodhi or Vajirasana.
[Go back]
17.
Kalsi version, issued in 256 B.C. Asoka obviously had the Mangala
Sutta (Sutta Nipata 258-269) in mind when he issued this edict.
The word here translated as ceremony is mangala.
[Go back]
18.
Other versions substitute the following up to the end of the
edict.
[Go back]
It has also been said: "Generosity is good." But there is no
gift or benefit like the gift of the Dhamma or benefit like
the benefit of the Dhamma. There a friend, a well-wisher, a
relative or a companion should encourage others thus on appropriate
occasions: "This should be done, this is good, by doing this,
one can attain heaven." And what greater achievement is there
than this, to attain heaven?
19.
Girnar version, issued in 256 B.C.
[Go back]
20.
Girnar version, issued in 256 B.C.
[Go back]
21.
Similar to Dhammapada 354.
[Go back]
22.
Girnar version, issued in 256 B.C.
[Go back]
23.
Asoka probably believed that the essentials (saravadi)
of all religions were their ethical principles.
[Go back]
24.
(Ta samavayo eva sadhu). This sentence is usually translated
"Therefore concord is commendable." Samavayo however
comes from sam + ava + i, "to come together."
[Go back]
25.
Kalsi version, issued in 256 B.C. Kalinga corresponds roughly
to the modern state of Orissa.
[Go back]
26.
The Buddha pointed out that the four castes of Indian society
likewise were not found among the Greeks; see Majjhima Nikaya,
II:149.
[Go back]
27.
Perhaps Asoka had in mind Dhammapada 103-104.
[Go back]
28.
Antiochos II Theos of Syria (261-246 B.C.), Ptolemy II Philadelphos
of Egypt (285-247 B.C.), Antigonos Gonatos of Macedonia (278-239
B.C.), Magas of Cyrene (300-258 B.C.) and Alexander of Epirus
(272-258 B.C.).
[Go back]
29.
Girnar version, issued in 256 B.C.
[Go back]
30.
Dhauli version, issued in 256 B.C. These two edicts are found
in two different places.
[Go back]
31.
Dhauli version, issued in 256 B.C.
[Go back]
32.
This is reminiscent of the Buddha's words: "Just as a mother
would protect her only child even at the risk of her own life,
even so, let one cultivate a boundless heart towards all beings."
Sutta Nipata 149.
[Go back]
33.
Gavimath version, issued in 257 B.C. This edict is found in
twelve different places.
[Go back]
34.
First Asoka was a lay-disciple (upasaka) and then he
visited or literally "went to the Sangha" (yam me samghe
upeti). Some scholars think this means that Asoka became
a monk. However it probably means that he started visiting Buddhist
monks more often and listening to their instructions more carefully.
[Go back]
35.
Brahmagiri version.
[Go back]
36.
This edict was found inscribed on a small rock near the town
of Bairat and is now housed at the Asiatic Society in Calcutta.
Its date is not known.
[Go back]
37.
This sentence is the converse of a similar one in the Tipitaka:
"...that which is well-spoken is the words of the Lord." Anguttara
Nikaya, IV:164.
[Go back]
38.
There is disagreement amongst scholars concerning which Pali
suttas correspond to some of the text. Vinaya samukose: probably
the Atthavasa Vagga, Anguttara Nikaya, 1:98-100. Aliya vasani:
either the Ariyavasa Sutta, Anguttara Nikaya, V:29, or the Ariyavamsa
Sutta, Anguttara Nikaya, II: 27-28. Anagata bhayani: probably
the Anagata Sutta, Anguttara Nikaya, III:100. Muni gatha: Muni
Sutta, Sutta Nipata 207-221. Upatisa pasine: Sariputta Sutta,
Sutta Nipata 955-975. Laghulavade: Rahulavada Sutta, Majjhima
Nikaya, I:421.
[Go back]
39.
The following seven edicts are from the Delhi Topra version,
the first six being issued in 243 B.C. and the seventh in 242
B.C. The first six edicts also appear on five other pillars.
[Go back]
40.
Cakhu dane. The meaning is unclear. It may mean that
Asoka has given "the eye of wisdom," but taking into account
the context, it more likely means he has stopped blinding as
a form of punishment.
[Go back]
41.
Similar to the ideas expressed by the Buddha in Dhammapada 50
and 252.
[Go back]
42.
The identification of many of these animals is conjectural.
[Go back]
43.
The Ajivikas were a sect of ascetics in ancient India established
by Makkhali Gosala, a contemporary of the Buddha. The Niganthas
are the Jains.
[Go back]
44.
This inscription is found on a pillar in Lumbini where the Buddha
was born. It was issued in 249 B.C., probably at the time of
Asoka's visit to the place.
[Go back]
45.
Allahabad version, date of issue not known. The words in brackets
are missing due to damage on the pillar, but they can be reconstructed
from the three other versions of this edict.
[Go back]
46.
The white clothes of the lay followers rather than the yellow
robe of a monk or nun.
[Go back]
Bibliography
[^]
D. R. Bhandarkar, Asoka. Calcutta, 1955
R. Mookerji, Asoka. Delhi, 1962
A. Sen, Asoka's Edicts. Calcutta, 1956
A. Seneviratna (editor), King Asoka and Buddhism. Kandy.
Scheduled for 1993.
D. C. Sircar, Inscriptions of Asoka. Delhi, 1957
The
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Revised:
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http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/bps/wheels/wheel386.html
Contents
The
Contributors .......................................................................................................................
vi
Editor's
Preface ..........................................................................................................................
xi
Editor's
Note .............................................................................................................................
xii
Acknowledgements
...............................................................................................................
xiii
1
- Asoka:
The Great Upasaka
RICHARD
GOMBRICH .................................................................................................
1
1.
Asoka's Inscriptions ........................................................................................
2
2.
Asoka in Buddhist Tradition .....................................................................
6
3.
The Missions: Interpreting the Evidence .........................................
10
Notes
...........................................................................................................................
13
2
- Asoka and Buddhism
as Reflected in the Asokan Edicts
ROMILA
THAPAR .........................................................................................................
15
3
- Emperor Asoka and Buddhism:
Unresolved Discrepancies between Buddhist Tradition
& Asokan Inscriptions
ANANDA
W.P. GURUGE .........................................................................................
37
1.
Introduction ........................................................................................................
37
2.
Conversion of Asoka to Buddhism .....................................................
42
3.
When, How and by Whom? ...................................................................
46
4.
Major Discrepancies in Events and Dates .......................................
49
5.
Historical Reliability of Rock Edict XIII ...........................................
54
6.
Asoka's Role in the
Propagation
of Buddhism in his Empire ........................................
63
7.
Foreign Missions of Asoka .........................................................................
70
8.
Conclusions .........................................................................................................
79
Notes
..........................................................................................................................
84
4
- Asoka's Edicts
and the Third Buddhist Council
N.A.
JAYAWICKRAMA ...............................................................................................
92
Notes
........................................................................................................................
106
5
- Asoka and the Emergence
of
a Sinhala Buddhist State in Sri Lanka
ANURADHA
SENEVIRATNA ..................................................................................
111
1.
Introduction ....................................................................................................
111
2.
Sources ..............................................................................................................
112
3.
The Mission to Sri Lanka: Brief Account .......................................
115
4.
The Political Background ......................................................................
118
5.
The Sri Lanka-Kalinga Tie .....................................................................
122
6.
Asoka and Tissa ...........................................................................................
125
7.
The Advent of Mahinda ..........................................................................
130
8.
Sanghamitta and the Bodhi Tree ......................................................
132
9.
Conclusion .......................................................................................................
135
Notes
........................................................................................................................
137
6
- Images of Asoka:
Some
Indian and Sri Lankan Legends and their Development
JOHN
S. STRONG .....................................................................................................
141
A.
The Early Traditions .........................................................
146
1.
The Gift of Honey and the Gift of Dirt .........................................
146
2.
The Fate of the Bodhi Tree ..................................................................
152
3.
The Gathering of the Relics .................................................................
154
4.
The 84,000 Stupas or Viha¥ras .............................................................
157
B.
Later Developments ...........................................................
162
1.
The Gift of Dirt Reconsidered ............................................................
162
2.
The Legends of the Queens ................................................................
165
3.
The Collection of Relics: A New Story ..........................................
168
4.
The 84,000 Stupas Once More ...........................................................
170
Conclusion
..............................................................................................................
173
Notes
........................................................................................................................
174
7
- Emperor Asoka's Place in History:
A
Review of Prevalent Opinions
ANANDA
W.P. GURUGE ......................................................................................
182
1.
Introduction ....................................................................................................
182
2.
Asoka in the Mainstream Indian Tradition and Literature ..........
184
3.
Asoka of the Northern Buddhist Sources ...................................
188
4.
Asoka of the Sri Lankan Pali Sources ............................................
195
5.
Asoka of Edicts and Inscriptions ......................................................
201
6.
Asoka in the Eyes of Recent Writers & Scholars .....................
203
7.
Asoka and the Decline and Fall of the Mauryan Empire ............
217
8.
Conclusion .......................................................................................................
221
Notes
........................................................................................................................
224
Maps
Asoka's
Indian Empire .................................................................................................
235
Areas
to which Buddhist Missions were sent .............................................
236
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